Section One: General Text

Part A. Translate the following English passages into Chinese.

On 9 December 1998, almost 20 years ago, on the eve of the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the General Assembly declared that everyone had the right to promote and to strive for the protection and realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms. In doing so, the States Members of the United Nations recognized both the truth, well-known to the drafters of the Declaration, that human rights existed, above all, in “small places close to home” and the desperate, daily reality of too many people who continued to face the disregard and contempt for human rights that the Assembly sought to banish. The mood was not celebratory, either for the milestone anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or for the adoption of the new Declaration on Human Rights Defenders. Rather, historical accounts tell us that the day was cold and spirits were downcast. A group of human rights defenders gathering to mark the adoption of the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders in Paris expressed their disappointment; in the face of widespread human rights violations, the aspirations of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights continued to be unmet. While the new Declaration was viewed by many as only the “absolute minimum” necessary for the defence of human rights, it was nevertheless greeted by a group of 26 States as being in need of immediate qualification and limitation.

Part B. Translate the following Chinese passage into English.

生物多样性养护与可持续利用对人类健康有着多方面的潜在好处。作物和遗传的多样性有益于实现饮食多样性和营养，在自然环境中接触微生物多样性对免疫系统和肠道菌群有许多益处，更多地接触大自然可刺激儿童发育，使儿童身心多方面受益，还能保护文化和精神遗产。在传染病传播调节方面，尽管目前尚未充分了解未受干扰的生态系统的作用和气候条件的适用性，但最近的几项研究报告指出，在受到干扰和退化的栖息地，人畜共患疾病和媒介传播疾病的传播风险增加， 这凸显了生物多样性在调节传染病接触方面的作用。

Section Two: Specialized Text

Part A. Translate the following English passages into Chinese. 

Economics and Finance

The Korean economy became increasingly more open. Trade, measured as the share    of exports and imports in GDP, rose from around 55 percent of GDP to more than 90 percent through the 2000s. The increasing global dominance of its key export sectors—such as shipbuilding, automobiles and electronics—contributed to large foreign exchange inflows relative to the size of the economy and financial system. This, in turn, led to liberalization of outflows, especially in the years leading up to the global financial crisis.

Despite being generally well sequenced, capital account liberalization was also associated with the buildup of external vulnerabilities. Ahead of the crisis, expectations of trend appreciation in the won(韩元) exchange rate created a large demand for hedging by exporters, particularly those with lengthy production cycles or low import contribution such as shipbuilders. The lack of commensurate demand for hedging by the importers in turn led to a large build-up of short-term external debt in the banking system, as banks sought to square  their  positions.  As a result, the system as a whole became highly leveraged. These vulnerabilities  led  to  Korea  facing stress in both dollar funding and foreign exchange markets during the post- Lehman global liquidity squeeze, despite a level of reserves perceived to be comfortable.

In order to address these vulnerabilities, the authorities put in place a number of regulatory measures starting in 2010. The measures include (i) a 100 percent cap on the ratio of won denominated loans to deposits to reduce reliance on noncore funding sources; (ii) leverage caps on banks’ foreign exchange derivative  positions;  (iii)  tighter foreign exchange liquidity standards aimed at mitigating maturity mismatches(complemented by more frequent stress tests); (iv) stricter regulation of domestic foreign currency lending; (v) the introduction of a macro-prudential stability levy on the balances of banks’ non-deposit foreign currency liabilities; and (vi) reinstitution of a withholding tax on foreign investors’ interest income on government bonds. The measures have generally led to reduced external vulnerability; in particular, the limits on foreign exchange derivative positions have contributed to containing banks’ short-term external debt.

Politics and Law

The Court begins by recalling that the 1939 decision is not an arbitral award made upon completion of arbitral proceedings. This does not, however, mean that it was devoid of all legal effect. Quite to the contrary, the pleadings, and in particular the Exchange of Letters referred to above, shows that Bahrain and Qatar consented to the British Government settling their dispute over the Hawar Islands. The 1939 decision must therefore be regarded as a decision that was binding from the outset on both States and continued to be binding on those same States after 1971, when they ceased to be British protected States. The Court further observes that while it is true that the competent British officials proceeded on the premise that Bahrain possessed prima facie title to the islands and that the burden of proving the opposite lay on the Ruler of Qatar, Qatar cannot maintain that it was contrary to justice to proceed on the basis of this premise when Qatar had been informed before agreeing to the procedure that this would occur and had consented to the proceedings being conducted on that basis. During those proceedings the two Rulers were able to present their arguments and each of them was afforded an amount of time which the Court considers was sufficient for this purpose; Qatar's contention that it was subjected to unequal treatment therefore cannot be upheld. The Court also notes that, while the reasoning supporting the 1939 decision was not communicated to the Rulers of Bahrain and Qatar, this lack of reasons has no influence on the validity of the decision taken, because no obligation to state reasons had been imposed on the British Government when it was entrusted with the settlement of the matter. Therefore, Qatar's contention that the 1939 British decision is invalid for lack of reasons cannot be upheld.

Finally, the fact that the Sheikh of Qatar had protested on several occasions against the content of the British decision of 1939 after he had been informed of it is not such as to render the decision unopposable to him, contrary to what Qatar maintains. The Court accordingly concludes that the decision taken by the British Government on 11 July 1939 is binding on the parties.

Social Sciences

Evaluating to what extent trademark registers may be cluttered is difficult, as one does not have information on whether owners of trademarks actually use them. To overcome this difficulty, von Graevenitz (2012) makes use of a natural experiment provided by the enlargement of the European Union (EU) in 2004.

In particular, von Graevenitz’s study focuses on the pharmaceutical industry where firms do not only seek trademark protection for new drug names, but they must also obtain the approval of medical regulators for using those names in commerce. Indeed, in order to avoid confusion of drug names and the possible adverse health outcomes that could ensue, the scrutiny applied by medical regulators is typically tougher than that applied by trademark offices. As a result, pharmaceutical firms often submit multiple names for their new products to medical regulators, so that they do not have to start from scratch if one or more regulator around the world rejects a name. In order to establish exclusive rights over the submitted names, they apply for trademarks for each of them.

Against this background, von Graevenitz’s study questions whether the enlargement of the EU prompted pharmaceutical companies to apply for more trademarks, as they faced a tougher name review at the European Medicines Agency (EMA). In particular, EU enlargement meant that 10 additional countries could object to a name in the EMA’s Invented Name Review Group.

The study focuses on trademark applications at the Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market (OHIM), the EU office responsible for the Community Trade Mark (CTM). It employs a so-called difference-in-difference estimator that not only compares filing behavior before and after EU enlargement, but also evaluates how filing behavior in the pharmaceutical industry compares to other industries. It concludes that name review at the EMA prompted pharmaceutical companies to register between 10 and 37 percent more trademarks. The costs of these additional trademark registrations are not trivial. Estimates suggest that the cost of developing a single new drug name can amount to USD 25,000 or more.

Medicine

Allergy or hypersensitivity is the result of an immune response to a drug or preparation. As in any immune response, the substance is recognized by the immune system as foreign. That is, the compound is seen as antigenic. Once this occurs, a portion of the drug becomes sequestered into the lymphatics of the host, is processed immunologically, and evokes the production of two types of effectors – specific antibodies will be produced against the antigen by B lymphocytes, and specifically sensitized effector cells (T lymphocytes ) will be elaborated in large numbers. Both the B and the T lymphocytes are precommitted to the structure on the drug molecule with which they react. In the case of a large complex molecule, as many drugs are, several different structures may be recognized by different precommitted T and B lymphocytes. The point is that as many different structures as possible are detected as foreign, and hence the response is polyclonal. More than one precommitted precursor cell can respond to different parts of the molecule each capable of reaction with one small portion of the foreign molecule. That id, a normal immune response has multiple specificities within it. That antigen, in turn, is a mosaic of different substructures that give rise to spectrum of specificities. The word epitope has been coined to describe each individual structure that has been identified. The totality of the epitopes makes up the antigen.

During a normal immune response, both humoral (antibody – mediated) and cellular immunity are evoked. This is also the case with allergy. After exposures to the antigen (allergy), a period ensues during which an immune response is being mounted but no symptoms appear (the lag period). After this, IgM antibodies begin to appear in the serum of individual. These are soon replaced by antibodies of the same specificity but of different chain structure. The cells producing antibodies undergo what is known as a switch from IgM to the other classes of antibody: IgG, IgA, and IgE. It is the IgE that is involved in allergy for reasons that are described later. None of the other antibody classes had been shown to be responsible for allergy.

Technology

THE INTEREST in nanostructures is so great that every plausible fabrication technique is being examined. Although physicists and chemists are now doing most of the work, biologists may also make important contributions. The cell (whether mammalian or bacterial) is relatively large on the scale of nanostructures: the typical bacterium is approximately 1,000 nanometers long, and mammalian cells are larger. Cells are, however, filled with much smaller structures, many of which are astonishingly sophisticated. The ribosome, for example, carries out one of the most important cellular functions: the synthesis of proteins from amino acids, using messenger RNA as the template. The complexity of this molecular construction project far surpasses that of man-made techniques. Or consider the rotary motors of the bacterial flagella, which efficiently propel the one-celled organisms.

It is unclear if “nanomachines” taken from cells will be useful. They will probably have very limited application in electronics, but they may provide valuable tools for chemical synthesis and sensing devices. Recent work by Carlo D. Montemagno of Cornell University has shown that it is possible to engineer a primitive nanomachine with a biological engine. Montemagno extracted a rotary motor protein from a bacterial cell and connected it to a metallic nanorod—a cylinder 750 nanometers long and 150 nanometers wide that had been fabricated by lithography. The rotary motor, which was only 11 nanometers tall, was powered by adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the source of chemical energy in cells. Montemagno showed that the motor could rotate the nanorod at eight revolutions per minute. At the very least, such research stimulates efforts to fabricate functional nanostructures by demonstrating that such structures can exist.

The development of nanotechnology will depend on the availability of nanostructures. The invention of the STM and AFM has provided new tools for viewing, characterizing and manipulating these structures; the issue now is how to build them to order and how to design them to have new and useful functions. The importance of electronics applications has tended to focus attention on nanodevices that might be incorporated into future integrated circuits.

Part B. Translate the following Chinese passages into English.

Economics and Finance

自 1997 年末开始，俄罗斯金融稳定性面临挑战，外汇压力不断加剧，表现为对金融稳定性日益增长的担忧。由于压力增大，1998 年 9 月，官方汇率变动区间被取消，进而导致卢布（ruble）大幅贬值，通货膨胀率急剧上升。俄罗斯采取延期偿债，同时实施了各种资本管制策略。例如，暂停短期国债交易，强制延期偿还到期内债，限制非居民向国外转账。尽管实施了管制，但 1998 年下半年，俄罗斯资本外流仍高达 170 亿美元。国际储备仍然饱受压力，卢布持续贬值，这一现象一直延续到 1999 年初。后来由于采取了一些旨在解决根本问题的政策，俄罗斯金融环境最终恢复了稳定，这些政策包括新的增收措施、统一货币市场，以及银行重组。2004-2006 年，俄罗斯重新放宽对资本账户的管制，但是高油价和顺周期政策带来资本大量流入和过热，最终导致 2008-2009 年期间的资本流入骤停。

Politics and Law

本《公约》中以特别提款权表示的各项金额，系指国际货币基金组织确定的特别提款权。在进行司法程序时，各项金额与各国货币的换算，应当按照判决当日用特别提款权表示的该项货币的价值计算。当事国是国际货币基金组织成员的，用特别提款权表示的其国家货币的价值，应当按照判决当日有效的国际货币基金组织在其业务和交易中采用的计价方法进行计算。

但是，非国际货币基金组织成员并且其法律不允许适用本条第1款规定的国家，可以在批准、加入或者其后的任何时候声明，在其领土内进行司法程序时，就第21条而言，承运人对每名旅客的责任以1,500,000货币单位为限；就第22条第3款而言，承运人的责任以每公斤250货币单位为限。此种货币单位相当于含有千分之九百纯度的六十五点五毫克的黄金。各项金额可换算为有关国家货币，取其整数。各项金额与国家货币的换算，应当按照该有关国家的法律进行。

Social Sciences

近几十年来，神经生物学及其他脑神经研究领域的影响特别大，因为这些研究突出强调了人类脑神经形成初期阶段的作用。在生命的最初几年，脑细胞连接体（突触 synapses）迅速形成：突触密度在3岁时达到峰值，然后进入平稳期，再往后就是消退期，此时密度降至成年水平。鉴于突触形成的这一模式，人类生命的头三年对脑神经发育最为重要。此外，研究还表明，儿童成长的生理与情感大环境对脑神经发育有影响。婴幼儿接触尼古丁、酒精和麻醉药物等有毒物质会影响其脑神经发育，尤其是在胎儿正形成脑神经的孕期阶段。负面的经历和缺乏适当的刺激，对幼儿而言比对较大的儿童更有可能产生严重而持久的后果。从脑神经发育的具体方面来说，3岁以前要经过某些“关键阶段”，在此期间幼儿必须接受足够的刺激，否则就会影响发育，有时甚至受到终身影响。

Medicine

衰老的明显特征众所周知：头发花白和脱落，牙齿脱落，皮肤起皱，肌肉减少，脂肪积存增加。衰老的生理征兆是机体维持稳定的内环境（体内平衡）以应答温度，饮食和氧气供应改变的功能和能力的逐渐退化。衰老的这些迹象与机体中细胞数目的净减少以及存余细胞的功能紊乱有关。

组织的细胞外成分也随着年龄的变化而变化。负责肌腱力量的胶原纤维的数 量增加，而质量却随着衰老降低。动脉壁上的胶原质的变化与动脉粥样硬化相关的沉积，即动脉壁上的脂肪沉积物一起造成了动脉壁伸展性丧失。随着年龄的变化，它变稠，变成碎片并且获得更大的钙亲和力，这些变化可能也导致了动脉粥样硬化。

葡萄糖是机体中含量最多的糖类，它在衰老的过程中可能也起作用。根据一个假说，葡萄糖混乱地添加到细胞内外蛋白质上，在相邻蛋白质分子之间形成不可逆的交联。随着人的老化，更多的联接形成，这很可能就是造成老化组织僵硬及弹性丧失的原因。

Technology

科技术语在流行一时，为人所弃后，往往不会再度流行，但“固态”一词是个例外。回想几十年前，这个词几乎是“现代”的同义词。那时，“固态”电视机和收音机抛弃容易发热、体积庞大且毫不可靠的真空管，代之以晶体管。 眼下，“固态”一词重新流行，用于电脑存储领域。“固态”一词用来描述无需通过转动来读写信息，而是将信息存在闪存上的硬盘。

闪存早已问世。这种电脑芯片类似电脑内存所用的芯片，但断电之后，闪存所储存的信息不会丢失。闪存一直用于拇指大小的 U 盘以及苹果 iPod Nano 音乐播放器中。

闪存的最新变化，是其成本低至能够用来制造固态硬盘，以取代传统硬盘。

固态硬盘的架构和连接方式与普通硬盘相同。只须拆卸原有硬盘，插上固态硬盘即可。电脑识别也无问题，而且固态硬盘更轻便、更节能、噪音也更小。此外，由于没有移动部件，固态硬盘还更为稳定可靠。